Chinese Art

Chinese Art (c.1600 BCE - 1920)

During its long history, China has mastered almost all known art forms and is world famous for its jade ware, ceramics, porcelain, terracotta figurines, Buddist sculpture, wash-painting and calligraphy, as well as its unique styles of fine art painting.

Early Artworks

The earliest type of ancient art in prehistoric China was created during the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic eras of the Stone Age. It included primitive cave paintings as well as portable artifacts made out of pottery and jade. During the Bronze Age under the Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BCE), bronze casting was practised and became a speciality. Also, Calligraphy was invented during this time (c.1700 BCE). See Prehistoric Art Timeline.

Painting by Dong Yuan,
Song dynasty (c.1000).
Chinese Wash Painting.
See also Chinese Painters.

ART OF ISLAM
For information about the effect
of Chinese porcelain ceramics
and other art forms on Muslim
culture, see: Islamic Art.

DIFFERENT FORMS OF ARTS
For definitions, meanings and
explanations of different arts,
see Types of Art.

By the end of the Iron Age, China had become well known for its pottery and porcelain. During the Qin Dynasty in the third-century BCE, the Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi commissioned the creation of a huge number of terracotta warriors to be interred with him when he died. This incredible artistic accomplishment, known as the "Terracotta Army" was discovered in 1974 in Shaanxi province, China. Construction of Qin's army and mausoleum is reckoned to have taken 700,000 workers and craftsmen 38 years to complete.

Impact of Invention of Paper, Dynastic Priorities and Trade

The Chinese invention of paper during the first-century CE contributed significantly to the arts by providing a cheap and widespread medium both for painting and writing. It also led to the Chinese art of paper cutting and indirectly to the Japanese art of Origami. During the first-century CE, Buddhism came to China, athough it was not widely practised until about 300 CE, after which Chinese Buddhist religious art - including painting, sculpture, and architecture thrived throughout the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317-420), the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420-581), the Sui Dynasty (581-618), and most of the Tang Dynasty (618-907). Thereafter, over the next Millennium, arts in China developed according to the interest and patronage of each dynasty as well as the whims of regional rulers. Trade relations with its East Asian neighbours was also an important stimulus in the development of Chinese arts, especially pottery and lacquerwork. During this time, architecture, painting, sculpture, pottery, ceramics, terracotta artworks, music and opera, calligraphy, all developed strong traditions which evolved against the backdrop of political and social events.

Chinese Painting (200 BCE - 1911 CE)

Chinese art, like Japanese art, has a strong tradition in painting as well as the art of calligraphy and printmaking. Compared to Western art, Chinese painting is more concerned with water based techniques, rather than oils or acrylics. In addition, Chinese painting is traditionally more stylized, more abstract and less realistic than Western types. It also emphasizes the importance of white space and may be said to favour landscape painting over portrait art, or figurative work.

Traditional Chinese painting ("guo hua") is similar to calligraphy - itself deemed to be the highest form of painting. It was executed with a brush (made of animal hair) dipped in black ink (made from pine soot and animal glue) or colored ink. Oils were not generally used. The most popular type of media was paper or silk, but some paintings was done on walls or lacquerwork. The completed artwork was then mounted on scrolls, which were hung or rolled up. In simple terms, there are two types of "guo hua": the first, known as "Gong-bi" or meticulous-style, is also described as court-style painting; the second, known as "Shui-mo" or "xie yi" or freehand-style is also called watercolour or brush painting.

A great deal of what we know of early Chinese painting derives from burial sites from the late Iron Age onwards. These tomb paintings were done on silk banners, various lacquered objects, and walls. Their primary function was to protect the dead or assist their souls on their journey to paradise. Tomb painting and sculpture reached its high-point during the Han Dynasty.

Chinese Painting Theory

During the fifth-century CE, in his book "The Record of the Classification of Old Painters", the art expert Xie-He laid down his famous "Six Points to Consider when Judging a Painting." These are: (1) "Spirit Resonance", or overall energy of a work. (2) "Bone Method", or brushwork. (3) "Correspondence to the Object", or how the shape and line of the object is represented. (4) "Suitability to Type", meaning the thickness and tone of the colour scheme. (5) "Division and Planning", meaning the artist's composition, linear perspective and use of space. (6) "Transmission by Copying", meaning how well the artist copies the object or historical masterpiece.

A further development of Chinese landscape painting occurred at the beginning of the Tang Dynasty (618-907). Artists began creating landscapes in a sparse monochromatic style - not so much to reproduce the true reality of the scenery but in order to grasp the atmosphere or mood of the location. Thirteen centuries later, Impressionists like Claude Monet would use similar reasoning to create an entirely different type of landscape.

During the Tang Dynasty, figure drawing staged a comeback. Using vivid colours and elaborate detail, artists such as Zhou Fang portrayed the splendor of Tang court life in paintings of the Emperor, his palace ladies, and horses. In contrast to Zhou Fang's rich colourful style, the Tang artist Wu Daozi used only black ink and free-flowing brushstrokes to produce such exciting ink paintings that crowds gathered to watch him paint. Henceforth, so it is said, ink paintings were no longer thought to be merely drawings to be filled in with color; instead they were valued as finished works of art.

After calligraphy, landscape painting is considered to be the highest form of Chinese painting. The start of classical Chinese landscape painting was supposedly due to the celebrated Jin Dynasty artist Gu Kaizhi (344-406 CE). However, the period (907-1127) is known as the 'Great age of Chinese landscape'. In the north of the country, Chinese artists like Fan Kuan, Guo Xi and Jing Hao produced images of towering mountains, using strong black lines, ink wash, and sharp, dotted brushstrokes to suggest rough stone. In the south, Ju Ran, Dong Yuan, and others depicted rolling hills and rivers with softer, rubbed brushwork. These two types of outdoor subjects and techniques evolved into the main classical styles of Chinese landscape painting.

During this time, which coincided with the Song Dynasty (960-1279), landscape artists started using even more subtle techniques. They began depicting depth through the use of blurred outlines and impressionistic treatment of elements in the middle and far distance of their painting. At the same time, a Taoist-like emphasis was placed on the emotional/spiritual qualities of the picture, and on the ability of the artist to display the harmony between man and nature.

Another school of Chinese painting emerged during the thirteenth century. This involved the painting of simple subjects - a branch with fruit, a few flowers, or a simple view. More styles of painting surfaced during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), including the Wu School and the Zhe School.

A reaction against the traditional rules of painting occurred during the early Qing dynasty (1644-1912), when painters known as "Individualists" began using a looser, freer style of brushwork. This new type of approach was encouraged in the 1700s and 1800s, when rich patrons in commercial centres like Yangzhou and Shanghai began to commission artists to produce bold new paintings. Traditional Chinese painting came under further pressure during the late 1800s and 1900s, as artists became increasingly influenced by Western art, culminating in the introduction of oil painting to the Chinese mainland.

Chinese Wash Painting

Developed in China during the Tang Dynasty (618-907), Wash Painting was invented by Wang Wei, who was the first artist to apply colour to existing ink and wash paintings. Wash Painting was further refined during the Song Dynasty (960-1279), before Buddist monks introduced it to Japan where it grew in popularity until its peak during the Japanese Muromachi period (1338-1573).

The materials used in Wash Painting are very similar to those used in Calligraphy. Wash painters typically grind their own ink using an ink stick and a grinding stone. Ink sticks are usually composed of densely packed charcoal ash from bamboo or pine soot mixed with glue extracted from fish bones. Brushes can be made from goat hair, ox, horse, sheep, rabbit, marten, badger, deer, boar or wolf hair. The hair is tapered to a fine point, an essential requirement in Wash painting.

As in oil painting, different brushes have different qualities. A small wolf-hair brush that is tapered to a fine point can deliver an even thin line of ink (much like a pen), whereas a wide wool brush can deliver a large amount of water and ink. Once a brushstroke is made, it cannot be changed or erased. This makes Wash Painting a particularly demanding art-form which requires years of training.

Traditional subjects portrayed in ink and wash paintings are the Four Noble Ones - that is, the four species of plants: the bamboo, orchid, plum blossom, and chrysanthemum. In Chinese philosophy, these plants represent the four seasons - winter, spring, summer, and autumn, respectively - and the four virtues of the ideal Confucian man.

Artists noted for their skill in Wash Painting include: Mi Youren, Qi Baishi, Bada Shanren, Daqian Jushi, Su Shi and Xu Beihong.

20th Century

Unfortunately, after Chinese communists took over in 1949, many of the established traditions of Chinese art were labeled reactionary. New art forms geared to Socialist glorification appeared in music, literature and the visual arts. In 1966, the Cultural Revolution accelerated this process. Despite this political modernism, traditional Chinese arts not only continue to mould young Chinese artists and inspire other artists around the globe, but have combined with more experimental twentieth-century art forms to produce a vibrant market for contemporary Chinese art.

Contemporary Chinese Art

Sometimes described as Chinese avant-garde art, Chinese contemporary art denotes work produced after the Cultural Revolution (1966-9). Despite short periods of artistic freedom, uncertainty as to what constitutes "officially acceptable" content and style continues to hamper many artists in China. Recently a mood of greater tolerance by the Chinese authorities has prevailed, although doubts remain. Modern Chinese art typically incorporates a wide range of art forms including painting, sculpture, film, video, photography, installation and performance, as well as revived versions of traditional ceramics. The emergence of new commercial areas, like the 798 Art District in Dashanzi of Beijing has proved helpful to many artists. In 2000, China staged the Shanghai Biennial Festival and in 2003 a number of Chinese artists were represented at the Venice Biennale of 2003.

Growth in Demand for Chinese Visual Art

According to the Artprice report, the total revenue generated by one hundred Chinese artists (who typically grew up in a post-Mao China) in 2003-4 amounted to a mere £860,000. In the year July 2007 to June 2008, the same hundred sold paintings, sculptures and other works for a massive £270m. Of these, three artists each made more than £25 million. Not surprisingly, numerous works by contemporary Asian artists are now represented in galleries and museums across the world, and the eminent British art collector Charles Saatchi recently opened his new gallery in Chelsea with an exhibition of contemporary Chinese artists.

Famous Contemporary Chinese Artists

Among the considerable number of talented painters and sculptors from the People's Republic of China, watch out for the following:

Zhang Xiaogang (b.1958)

Currently number 5 in the 2008 list of the World's Top contemporary artists, Zhang Xiaogang is noted for his surrealist paintings, influenced by Pablo Picasso and Salvador Dali, as well as his Bloodline series of paintings, featuring formal monochrome portraits of Chinese subjects.

Zeng Fanzhi (b.1964)

Currently number 6 in the list of the World's Top contemporary artists, Zeng Fanzhi is noted for his figurative works executed in a combination of expressionism and realism, as well as his sequence of ironic Great Man paintings, which includes Mao, Karl Marx and Lenin among others.

Yue Minjun (b.1962)

Currently number 7 in the list of the World's Top contemporary artists, Yue Minjun is a leading member of the Chinese "cynical realist" school. He is noted for his bizarre and distinctive series of doppelgänger painters.

Wang Guangyi (b.1957)

Currently number 9 in the list of the World's Top contemporary artists, the "political pop" artist Wang Guangyi mixes popular consumer logos with the style and aesthetic of communist agitprop propaganda posters. The Saatchi Gallery describes Wang Guangyi as a mixed media artist who adopts the Cold War language of the 1960s to explore the contemporary polemics of globalisation.

In 2006, a 1993 painting by Zhang Xiaogang featuring blank-faced family members from the mid-1960s was sold for $2.3 million. Other recent art transactions have included: the purchase of the 1964 painting "All the Mountains Blanketed in Red" for HKD $35 million; the purchase of Xu Beihong's 1939 masterpiece "Put Down Your Whip" for HKD $72 million.

• For other art movements/periods, see: History of Art. For dates/chronology see: Timeline of Art History.
• For our main index, see: Art Encyclopedia.

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