Irish Illuminated Manuscripts
Guide to Irish Illustrated Gospel Texts, Book of Kells, Book of Durrow.
Visual Arts Guide

Early Christian Irish Illuminated Manuscripts

Irish and Anglo-Saxon illustrated manuscripts (part of Celtic Insular Art), like the Book of Durrow and the Book of Kells, were the first decorated Christian gospel texts, dating from the mid-sixth century (550 CE). In due course, they were followed by Medieval Christian artworks such as Carolingan and Byzantine illuminated manuscripts, as well as a host of Persian Islamic illuminations and Chinese calligraphic artworks.

This Insular art form gathered momentum from a fusion of Celtic illumination with Anglo-Saxon techniques which took place as Irish missionaries, monasteries and monastic art spread across Ireland (eg. Kildare, Durrow, Clonmacnois, Clonfert, Kells and Monasterboice), Scotland (eg. Iona) and England (eg. Lindisfarne off the coast of Northumbria) in the seventh and eighth centuries. Ultimately, this Hiberno-Saxon style created some of the most outstanding works in the history of Irish art of the Middle Ages.

Chronological List of Selected Illustrated Manuscripts

Cathach of Colmcille (560 CE), Book of Dimma (c.620), Durham Gospels (650), Book of Durrow (670), Book of Lindisfarne (700), Codex Amiatinus (715), Echternach Gospels (715), Vespasian Psalter (c.730), Codex Aureus (c.750) Book of Lichfield (785), St. Gall Gospels (late 8th century), Mulling Gospels (790), Book of Kells (c.800), Book of Armagh (807), Book of MacRegol (810), Book of Deer (early 9th century), Book of MacDurnan (910), Chronicle of Maelbrigte (1072), St Paul's Epistles (1078), Irish Missal (1125). Lesser examples of this early Christian art, written in the style of the traditional insular school of decoration, include: Book of the Dun Cow (1107), Epistles of St. Paul (1078), Chronicle of Mael Brigte (Mainz, Germany, 1073), Book of Leinster/Noughaval (North Tipperary, Ireland, 1155).

Evangelist Portrait from
The Book of Dimma (c.620)

These illuminated manuscripts were a mixture of religious text, copied from the bible, illustrated throughout by numerous decorative embellishments, of either abstract or representational art. Historiated letters, rhombuses, crosses, trumpet ornaments, pictures of birds and animals, were all used. Sometimes whole pages would contain nothing but illustrations. These so-called carpet pages would typically preface each Gospel and usually contained an intricate set of geometric or interlace patterns, sometimes framing a central cross.

These books were not all written in an identical style. Moreover, the artist monks who worked on them displayed varying levels of skill or familiarity with traditional Celtic artwork as well as Continental and Byzantine art. In general, Celtic scribes were less comfortable creating representational art (figure painting and drawing) than they were with more abstract decoration. There is also considerable variation in the colours used both for the text and the illustrations. Some books were bound in leather, others in wood and leather. The amount of metalwork, in the form of clasps, attachments and other adornments also varied. Some religious manuscripts had none, others (eg. Lindisfarne Gospels) were adorned with gold and silver - even gems. The highly ornate manuscripts were typically used as ceremonial Bibles or Gospels. They would be kept on the altar, rather than in the monastery library, and would be used for reading aloud and in processions on feast days. Because of their religious significance as well as their precious metalwork, many of these books were extremely valuable and great efforts were made by the monks to preserve them from pillage. Some (eg. Codex Amiatinus), were even presented to the Pope.

How They Were Made

The golden era of Irish illuminated manuscripts was roughly 650-1100 CE. The more important books, all produced in Irish or Anglo-Irish monasteries, contained the Gospels or other holy scripture from the Bible, all written in Latin. To praise the word of God and to help educate and inspire the monasteries' growing flock of Christian converts these books had to be made as beautiful as possible. However, producing an illustrated book during the medieval era of the seventh, eighth, ninth and tenth centuries was no easy feat. Viking raids and freezing temperatures often delayed the completion of these Celtic Christian artworks.

These religious texts were decorated to varying degrees and in varying styles, and display a wide variety of colour combination. Some used black or purple as a common background for their folios (pages), others used lighter colours or no colour. Decorations might be created using different combinations of red, yellow, green, blue, violet, purple, and turquoise blue. Some even used gold text. Although over time much of the colour and beauty of these artworks has faded, they must have appeared dazzling to the monks and people of the day. Even now, the fantastic Celtic intricacy of the decorative spirals, rhombuses, carpet pages and miniature pictures testifies to the outstanding creativity of this early religious art.

Each Page Hand-Made

There were no printing machines during these medieval times, so each folio or page had to be written by hand, making each manuscript a unique piece of biblical art. Nor was there any paper, so all the text was copied onto animal skins - either vellum (derived from the Old French Vélin, for "calfskin") or parchment (from sheepskin). Lime was applied to the skin to remove its hair, after which it was stretched onto wooden frames to be dried and smoothed, before being cut and folded into sheets.

Once the vellum or parchment was prepared, the monastery's calligraphers and scribes began the laborious task of copying the chosen religious text, word for word. Irish artists from among the monks would then begin the illustrations. Thus one manuscript might be worked on simultaneously by a group of monks, all under the supervision of a chief scribe. Novice monks typically did the mundane tasks of preparing the skins, making the goose quill pens, and mixing pigments for the artist-monks. The more accomplished of them might be permitted to paint basic designs, or to lay gold leaf. After some years of performing these low-level tasks, he would be assigned the responsibility of designing a page on his own.

Meanwhile, the intricate embellishment of the holy manuscript would be undertaken by experienced scribes and artist-monks. It was painstaking work, with elaborate illuminations requiring weeks to complete. The size of the pages varied from book to book, but typically was about 12 by 14 inches. Moreover, the illustrations - especially in the more ornate and highly decorated manuscripts like the Book of Durrow, the Lindisfarne Gospels or the Book of Kells - were so detailed that they were only just visible to the human eye. Many of the most intricate designs were first sketched on a large wax tablet before being recopied in miniature onto the vellum.

At the same time, other monks would be working on the design work of the book's cover, adding motifs or complex decorative patterns. These decorations would be further embellished by the addition of precious metals (gold and silver) or jewellery. Typically, the addition of precious metals and gems was confined to books containing the Gospels, which would then be used on the altar for ceremonial occasions, or carried in procession on important Feast days during the religious calendar.

When completed and also when being prepared, these valuable illuminated manuscripts were closely guarded within the monastery, to prevent their seizure by Viking and other marauders. Even so, many precious books were stolen or pillaged for their gems and precious metals. Monasteries along the coast were repeatedly attacked, and their devoted inhabitants butchered by Vikings. The danger of this happening often meant that some books (eg. the Book of Kells) had to be kept hidden for long periods, thus preventing them from being completed.

List of Irish Religious Manuscripts

Book of Armagh

Written about 807, by unknown authors, the Book of Armagh appears unfinished. Little illumination actually occurred. For example, several Evangelist pages lack the usual colour.

Cathach of Colmcille

Now kept at the Royal Irish Academy, the Cathach of Colmcille was completed as early as 560, and is the earliest surving manuscript of the Celtic Insular style of art. The name derives from the word 'cathach' meaning 'one who fights' and the manuscript was taken into battle as a lucky icon by the O'Domhnaill clan. Part of the text was supposedly written by Saint Columba himself.

Book of Deer

Written in the early ninth century by unknown authors, the Book of Deer contains simple but beautiful illuminations in traditional Scottish style. Later, (1000-1200 CE) an account in Scottish Gaelic of the foundation of the monastery was added. It includes the story of how Colmcille (Saint Columba) converted Bruide Mac Maelchon (556-584), king of the Picts. The Book of Deer comprises 86 pages: the first six chapters of the Gospel of St. Matthew, the first four chapters of St. Mark's Gospel, the first three chapters of St. Luke's Gospel and the whole of St. John. It also contains the Apostles' Creed. While the manuscript was written by only one scribe, two or more created the illustrations.

Book of Dimma

Now lodged at Trinity College, Dublin, the Book of Dimma was an early illuminated text, written about 620 with fewer decorations, mainly comprising illuminated initials and a few Evangelist portraits.

Durham Gospels

Now in the Durham Cathedral Library, the Durham Gospels were written in the mid-600s by Lindisfarne monks, supposedly the same ones that created the Echternach Gospels.

Book of Lindisfarne/Lindisfarne Gospels

Now at the British Museum, London, the Book of Lindisfarne was written between 690 and 720. Originally adorned with gold and silver, it was stated to be the work of Eadfrith, Bishop of the Lindisfarne Church, its later amendments were executed by the same scribes who corrected the Durham Gospels. The Book of Lindisfarne is considered to be second only to the Book of Kells in the quality and amount of embellishment.

Book of Durrow

Now at Trinity College, Dublin, the Book of Durrow (written c.670) is one of the oldest books still in existence. Styles of ornamentation employed, include spirals, tracery and trumpet ornaments. The spherical forms were not used merely as embellishment, but were interpreted in general as being symbols of the world because of the religious movement they illustrated. According to tradition, King Flann considered the Book of Durrow to be such a precious relic that he kept it in a specially made shrine-safe.

Echternach Gospels

Now kept at the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, the Echternach Gospels (also referred to as the Gospels of Saint Willibrord) were written by a Northumbrian scribe either at a monastery in Northumbria or in France about 715.

Book of Kells

Now kept at Dublin, Trinity College, the Book of Kells (written c. 800) is regarded as the foremost illustrated text of the period. See Book of Kells Illuminated Manuscript.

Book of Lichfield

Now at Lichfield Cathedral Library, this manuscript (also known as the Gospels of St. Chad) was written in Ireland about 785. The Irish connection is evidenced by its similarity with Irish and Northumbrian manuscripts.

Book of MacDurnan

Now at Lambeth Palace Library, London, the Book of MacDurnan (also known as the Lambeth Gospels) was written either in Ireland or Iona about 910. Scholars are undecided whether it was produced by Maelbrigte Mac Durnan, (Abbot of Armagh and Raphoe) or commissioned by him.

Book of MacRegol

This illustrated manuscript (also called the Rushworth Gospels) was completed in Ireland around 810 by Abbot Mac Regol.

Mulling/Moling Gospels

Now at Trinity College, Dublin, the Mulling Gospels were written at the Monastery of Saint Molling in County Carlow, Ireland, about 790. Produced as a 'pocket' Gospel, for personal rather than ceremonial use, its text is enscribed in a faster, less formal style. The ornamentation suggests that the artist had a good knowledge of traditional Celtic art but was less familiar with continental art.

Irish Missal

Completed about 1125, this manuscript (sometimes referred to as Irish Missal of Corpus Christi, Oxford) was written in the Viking Urnes style and is noted for its very early wooden binding.

Codex Amiatinus

Now at the Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana in Florence, the Codex Amiatinus was completed in Northumbria about 715. It is stated that Abbot Ceolfrith commissioned three ornamental Bibles to be written - one manuscript being for the monastery in Wearmouth, another for the monastery at Jarrow and a third to be presented to the Pope. The latter was taken by Abbot Ceolfrith on a pilgrimage to Rome in 716. The manuscript was lost during the journey and its subsequent history is largely unknown. However there is no doubting its authenticity. Parts of one of the other pair of Ceolfrith Bibles have also been found and are now lodged at the British Library in London.

Codex Aureus

Now in the Kungliga Bibliotek, Stockholm, the Codex Aureus (similar in style to the Vespasian Psalter) was written at Canterbury in about 750, and is noted for its dazzling use of gold text. The unknown chief scribe was clearly a master of Byzantine art but a relative novice at Celtic artwork, although one of his assistants was more skilled at traditional Celtic design.

During the course of succeeding centuries, these beautiful illuminated manuscripts from the Celtic insular art style were followed by other religious/philosophy books by Charlemagne monks (Carolingan texts), Byzantine theologians (Eastern Roman Empire Illuminations) as well as a Islamic scholars from Persia and Chinese calligraphers.

Major Example of Early Irish Visual Art

The cultural significance of these Irish gospel manuscripts should not be underestimated. Without the devotion of Irish monks and scribes, who - as well as copying biblical texts - also copied many of the secular Greek and Roman works from classical authors such as Homer, Plato and Virgil, part of the world's great culture from Antiquity might have been lost forever during the Barbarian conquest of the Continent, and the Renaissance might never have happened.

Irish illuminated manuscripts were the third and final type of early Irish visual art, after the Megalithic Passage Tomb artworks of Newgrange during the Neolithic era and the ornamental gold artifacts of the Irish Bronze Age.

• For more about the history of Irish culture, see: Visual Arts in Ireland.
• For information about the cultural history of Ireland, see: Irish Art and Culture.

• How to Update This Mini Review of Irish Illuminated Manuscripts.

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